Extremophiles are microorganisms that can survive in extreme conditions, such as high temperatures or great acidity. A recent study has found extremophiles in a location much more familiar to us, and it’s actually in the homes of humans.
Thermus Scotoductus cells, found in the water heaters of homes. Image courtesy of Science Daily
The study took samples from water heaters across all 50 states. Around 50% of the tested samples found evidence of microbes, with Thermus scotoductus being the most dominate species in all positive samples. The extremophiles pose no health risks to humans, making water containing the microbes still completely safe to consume. Thermus scotoductus has previously been found in hot springs, hydrothermal waters, and deep in a gold mine. Scientists are surprised to see such a large presence of this species in water heaters even in places with such a large abundance of other microbes, such as near Yellowstone. Even though we traditionally think of extreme conditions as “weird” or “inaccessible” parts of nature, our perception is shifting with this discovery.
And why do extremophiles colonize in water heaters? Scientists say the high temperatures and low levels of organic matter make the heaters an ideal environment for microbes. They can even survive being transported between water heaters because they can survive cooler temperatures as well. There is a correlation between colder temperatures outside and a greater presence of microbes, possibly because colder weather results in increased water heater temperatures. Scientists are still working to understand how the microbes enter our homes.
NASA has conducted a study that looks at the effects of being in space on the human body, and they are calling it the “Twins Study”. The two test subjects are identical twin astronauts Mark and Scott Kelly. Mark and Scott are the only twins to have traveled to space. The information collected can be extremely valuable now, as we consider sending people to Mars.
Mark Kelly (left) and Scott Kelly (right). Photo courtesy of NASA
The premise of the study is to examine the differences in twins who were originally genetically identical after one spends time in space. Scott Kelly spent 340 days in space from 2015-2016, but Mark stayed on Earth during this time (making him the control group). Each twin provided NASA will different biological samples before, while, and after Scott was in space. The findings showed various differences in Scott’s DNA compared to Mark’s. Such changes included an increase in genes related to the immune system, DNA repair, and stress. Scott also lost weight, had a decrease in blood pressure, had worsened eyesight due to a thickening of the optic nerve. Positive changes in his motor function and spatial awareness were found. None of the changes the study found were life-threatening, and most returned to normal after Scott was back on Earth for about 6 months.
Historically, astronauts have experienced a variety of health challenges while in space. These include headaches, nausea, insomnia, a decrease in muscle mass, a decrease in bone density, a lower red blood cell count, and a worsening of vision. Astronomers are hoping that by studying the specific genetic changes found in Scott Kelly, they can create medicine to help minimize the symptoms of space travel by specifically looking at the biochemistry of astronauts. This study could be instrumental in being able to send people into space on the long journey to Mars.
We are pretty used to things falling from the sky unexpectedly, as this often results in humans falling victim to injury. So it is pretty natural to ask, has anyone been hit by a meteorite: a piece of rock and metal that has survived passage from space through Earth’s atmosphere and ultimately fallen to Earth’s surface?
The answer: actually yes! This has happened (as far as what has been reported) one time in history, and it was actually in the United States. On November 30, 1954 in Sylacauga, Alabama a woman named Ann Hodges was asleep inside her home when a meteorite (weighing in at 9 pounds) fell through her ceiling, hit a radio, and then hit her in the thigh. Luckily, this woman was only left with a large bruise and no other major injuries. Sadly, this meteorite remained a problem for her as her landlord fought her for rightful ownership of said rock. This legal battle resulted in Hodges separating from her husband and her mental and physical health deteriorating until she died of kidney failure at the age of only 52. And according to Wikipedia, the Hodges had to pay $500 to gain ownership, but then were unable to find a buyer because so much time had passed while the court case played out. Hodge’s meteorite brought her fame, but it also seems like a lot of hardship. A neighbor of Hodge fared much better as a result of the meteorite. The man, named Julius Kempis McKinney, found a smaller piece of the meteorite and actually sold it for a very large sum, which allowed him to purchase a car and a house. Not a bad day for him!
Ann Hodges photographed for Time Magazine after being hit by a 9 lb meteorite. Image courtesy of All That’s Interesting
This is not the only instance of a meteorite causing humans issues. There have been many reported cases of damage to property, toxic fumes being released, and a dangerous explosion in Russia that injured over 1,000 people. But as far as being directly hit by a meteorite, the chances are extremely low. According to an article by the Smithsonian, the chances are 1 in 1.6 million, which is significantly lower than your chances of being hit by lightning, which is 1 in 135,000. But apparently our odds of dying as a result of a meteorite are 1 in 175,000. So we might die from space debris, it just probably won’t be because it directly hit us.
Earth experiences a warming through the greenhouse effect: the absorption and re-emission of light from the planet’s surface by compounds in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide and water. Greenhouse gases are necessary for keeping life on Earth warm enough to survive, but an increase in their concentration has led to a undesirable heating of Earth.
A diagram illustrating the greenhouse effect on Earth, image courtesy of Environment
The greenhouse effect can be witnessed in your everyday life! We’ve all probably experienced a parked car that is extremely hot when you return to it, even hotter than the temperature outside. This can be explained by light, absorption, and a similar process as the diagram above depicts.
Visible light from the sun enters the car through the glass of the windows. Some of this light is reflected back out through the car as visible light, just like some visible light is reflected off Earth’s atmosphere back into space. But, like the greenhouse gases of the atmosphere, parts of your car absorb the visible light and then re-emit this light in the car. When the light is emitted, it is now in the form of infrared light, which cannot pass through the windows to escape and remains as heat. Overall, more energy is coming into the car than is able to escape, which results in the hot interior. The image below demonstrates what takes place within your car.
Visible light can enter and exit, but IR light (in the form of heat) cannot escape. Image from HyperPhysics
In November of 2018, Chinese scientists announced their work on an artificial sun. Their goal is to develop the same nuclear fusion process that occurs within the sun (the conversion of hydrogen into helium) on Earth to ultimately create a source of unlimited clean energy.
China is using this machine, called the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) to simulate nuclear fusion on Earth. Image courtesy of The Sun
One of the biggest challenges of this project is to reach the extremely high temperatures required for fusion to occur. Nonetheless, the scientists have announced they plan to finish the artificial sun by the end of 2019 due to such great success even in early stages. The machine is a tokamak, consisting of strong magnetic fields and plasma (made mostly of electrons and ions). Scientists have reached electron temperatures of 100 million degrees Celsius, which is comparably hotter than the core temperature of the sun of around 15 million degrees Celsius. This high of a temperature is necessary, according to scientists, even though it’s hotter that the sun because of other impacting conditions. In order to achieve fusion, scientists believe they must also have an ion temperature of the same magnitude. Currently, ion temperatures are only at about 50 million degrees Celsius. The next step is to increase this temperature, because ions are what actually generate energy during the fusion process. If China does successfully achieve nuclear fusion on earth, it would be a truly world-altering advancement.
To read more, visit this article from the New York Post.
Tidal forces on Earth are caused by the uneven gravitational pull from the moon (and less from the sun) on opposite sides of the planet. But what are tidal forces like for objects near a black hole, a celestial object we are unable to see or explore?
The information scientists have collected on black holes is based on the influence black holes have on objects around them. The force of gravity within a black hole is so strong that not even light can escape. This is because they consist of such high amount of mass within such a small space. Visit Nasa’s website to read more about the science behind black holes.
An artist’s rendition of a Black Hole, courtesy of Curiosity
The Roche Limit is the minimum distance a satellite can keep from a center mass before the central body’s tidal forces overcome the orbiting body’s internal gravitational forces. Basically, this is how close you can get before you are ripped apart by tidal forces.
Many scientists have hypothesized about what would happen to a person if he or she were to approach a black hole. This hypothesis is called spaghettification: the person would be stretched and ultimately ripped apart, much like a piece of spaghetti. This process would happen again and again, creating successively smaller pieces of your body. Because the gravitational force is so strong within a black hole, the difference in the tug from the black hole on a person’s head and feet would be immense. According to SpaceMath, “the difference in acceleration between the head and feet could be thousands of Earth gravities.” The tidal forces caused by a black hole are much, much more significant than those of the moon. So stay clear of a black hole unless you like spaghetti so much you wish to become it.
Artist’s Rendition of Johannes Kepler. Image Courtesy of Popular Science.
Johannes Kepler was born in the German town of Weil der Stadt on December 27, 1571. Kepler was one of the most significant astronomers in history. He developed the current heliocentric model of planetary motion using Tycho Brahe’s naked eye observations. Contrasting his previous beliefs, Kepler discovered that planets orbit the sun in ellipses, not perfect circles, based on the data Brahe had collected. Kepler also published 3 laws of planetary motion that are still accepted as true today. Kepler died on May 24, 1543. To read more in depth about Kepler’s revolutionary career, visit this website by Nasa.
While Kepler was changing the future of the field of astronomy, other historical events occurred around the world. William Shakespeare, arguably the most famous playwright of all time, first saw his tragedy Romeo and Juliet published in 1597. This famous story is of forbidden love between a young man and woman from feuding families. In 1620, the Mayflower carrying the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock. The Pilgrims, also called Separatists, were English men and women who had separated from the church of England and were seeking religious freedom. They formed a permanent English settlement in Plymouth Massachusetts.
Kepler was one of numerous individuals shaping the world during the late 16th century. Mary Queen of Scots was the ruler of Scotland from December 14, 1542 to July 24, 1567 (27 years). She held the throne during a very reformative time for the nation where Catholics and Protestants were splitting apart. After an uprising and imprisonment, Mary fled to England to seek protection from Queen Elizabeth I, but was further imprisoned for 19 years. Ultimately, she was beheaded on February 8, 1587 on grounds of planning the assassination of the Queen.
While doing this research, I was thoroughly surprised to see the numerous historically significant events that happened and people that lived during the same time period as Johannes Kepler. I was unaware of the significance of the late 16th and early 17th centuries or the situations surrounding Kepler while he made his discoveries. While Kepler was changing the field of astronomy and the field of science was developing, politics and art were also revolutionizing. I find it somewhat surprising that astronomers were able to take the time to make such crucial observations and push scientific boundaries while the world was changing so much. Countries were fighting wars and colonizing new areas and the powers of the world were shifting, but science still mattered enough to be studied. Context for what we learn about is so important. By focusing on the big picture of the world during this time period I now have a better idea of what life was really like for astronomers such as Kepler while they made such leaps and bounds. Quite frankly, context can make science more fascinating and demonstrates the true complexity of the world. We need context to see how the progression of science fit in with the progression of the rest of society. One can really see the value of science when informed of the obstacles surrounding it.
The moon has always been a central part of human cultures, whether through film, art, music, or folklore. You have probably heard myths about the full moon and its effects on human (or animal) behavior. Here is some information on many historical beliefs about the power of the moon:
Full moon as seen from Penzance, England on December 13, 2016. This full moon was also a supermoon, meaning the moon was located at the perigee of its orbit and appeared larger in the sky. Image courtesy of Time
Fertility: It was commonly held that a full moon could impact a woman’s menstrual cycle or fertility. There are varying beliefs as to the specific effect, including that a woman’s chances of getting pregnant or giving birth were increased during a full moon or that a full moon could cause a woman to get her period. Studies have found no true correlations, other than that a woman’s cycle (average of 28 days) happens to be similar in length to the moon’s cycle (29.5 days).
Sleep: Can the phase of the moon impact the amount of sleep you get? Studies say that there is no correlation between your ability to sleep and the phase of the moon, although this is not what many believed in ancient times. It was commonly thought that a full moon would result in a sleepless night.
Epilepsy: Many people believed that seizures caused by epilepsy were more common or worse on the night of a full moon. Blame was placed on the moon for impacting those inflicted with this condition. Studies have found a lack of correlation between a full moon and epileptic seizures. In fact, research found the number of seizures is actually lowest during a full moon and highest during the last quarter of the cycle.
Mental State: Definitely one of the most popular beliefs, it was commonly thought that the moon could influence a person’s mental state. Many fear that the full moon can lead someone to crazy and erratic behavior. Many even believe the moon possesses transformative capabilities, which I am sure you are all familiar with (cue the werewolf howl). A possible explanation was that a full moon was so bright a person couldn’t sleep, and therefore was driven mad. Studies have not found this to be true.
Animals: Many believed the psychological effects of the moon also applied to animals. Therefore, many feared that animals would attack on the night of a full moon. Studies have actually found mixed results on this topic. The British Medical Journal reported an increase in the number of animal bites on the night of a full moon, while other studies reported no such increase. A study did conclude that the number of animal injuries resulting in trips to the vet does increase with a full moon, showing that animal behavior (not necessarily increased aggressiveness) is potentially impacted by the moon.
Surgery: Many doctors have refused to operate and many patients have refused to be operated on during a full moon. This is because it was commonly believed that a full moon would result in blood loss and death during surgery. However, studies have found no difference in surgical success rates based on the phase of the moon.
Most of the information from this post was obtained from Bustle and Live Science . Have you found yourself impacted by the full moon or believing in these or any other effects?
Campbell's Astronomical Analysis 
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